Chapter IV

CREATIVITY AS A COGNITIVE ABILITY FOR ENTREPRENEURS

Mª Luisa Sánchez Almagro, Enrique Trejo López and Noelia Paredes Plaza

1. INTRODUCTION

This chapter tries to work away with the pupils at some knowledge, but also some fundamental attitudes for the management of his or her future company. In fact, Gigg defines the entrepreneur as "an innovator and opportunist since he faces things that had not previously been done or explored" (Gibb 1987). The very term refers to "those people who start up new ventures thanks to their initiative, decision and constancy to become businessmen and do business".

Gilolo (1987) refers to entrepreneurs in terms of: Initiative, flexibility, creativity, and imagination.

The creative personality must include:

• Tolerance of ambiguity
• Fluency of ideas
• Originality*
• Capacity for new definitions *

Consequently, we have to inculcate in the entrepreneurs the precise abilities they need to develop their innovation capacity and adaptation (to the changes and demands of the environment).

The objectives that pursues the present chapter are the following:

• To Value the importance of having an innovative and feasible idea to create a company.
• To Know the lines to generate and value the idea of company.
• To analyse the difference between the concepts of creativity, innovation and adaptation.
• To become aware that everyone can be innovative and can acquire and improve his or her creativity and adaptation capacity.
• To Analyse the factors that will allow us to be more innovative by learning which are the characteristics of creativity.
• To Know the phases and the creative process.
• To Describe the sources of creativity.
• To prevent creative blocks and inflexible and obsolete attitudes in the management of the company.
• To practice creative abilities with regard to figurative problems and real situations.

2. ENTREPRENEURS AND INNOVATION.

Studies carried out in different countries on the evolution of the "rankings" of major companies show that every 20 years 60% disappear of the list of the first 100, and this tendency is increasing.

Why do they disappear? Or, why others always stay in this "ranking"?

One of the answers to these questions is that these companies only keep their company name. For example, the activity they have developed in the forties has changed so much that, in comparison, it has no common point with the one developed nowadays.

The conclusion is that the survival is increasingly united to a deep innovation process, which also needs a lot of creativity.

Schumpeter (1934 [1978]) indicates that innovation must be permanent. If we consider the entrepreneur as a person who makes new combinations, from the moment he reuses a combination, he has no longer an entrepreneurial attitude. Schumpeter regards the entrepreneur as the champion of innovation. Creativity is seen as a trend to make new things, to break with the routine. The entrepreneur does not only like to take the initiatives when he can, but also seeks constantly possibilities to do so and takes the best decisions.

Therefore, the entrepreneur does not innovate just to innovate or changes just for change: his or her activities do not mean anything if their value is not related to progress. The feeling of progress is even more manifest when the individual faces a situation where he or she must focus on the development of his or her company.

One of the advantages of the entrepreneurs of small and medium-sized businesses is that they have greater flexibility and a quick capacity of reaction. They are more prepared to incorporate changes to their products at the last moment, though these may have a uncertain future and be more risky.

Actually, Lafuente, Rooms and Yagüe (1983) think that:

“...The small company is said to have greater flexibility to adapt changes of the environment, through the rapid imitation of new techniques, methods and production. This implies that these companies have a favourable predisposition to introduce innovations by imitating or acquiring technology made in bigger economic units. As the company grows, it has greater difficulties reorienting rapidly and efficiently its resources to adapt external changes. Therefore, it pays more attention to foresee technological changes, with technological forecast, strategic planning or the incorporation of an R+D department to its current operations" (Page 114).

3. THE IDEA

3.1. - How does the idea emerge?

Bermejo, Rubio and Vega (1996) present the basic principles that synthesize the methodology that permits to accede to the innovative idea. These principles indicate that the innovation must:

• Be the result of an organized search, systematic and regular: Nobody can believe that, without effort, our brain will begin to generate one day those innovative ideas. This will only be possible if we take time to look around; if we observe what is occurring in other countries and regions; if we pay attention to the national and international media; if we speak with creative people, look into our needs and those of the people who surround us and are younger or older, or have different training or habits; if we have a look to our interests, etc. Your mind must be ready at any time to capture any good business opportunity.
• Be conceptual and perceptive: you have to turn a generic idea into opportunity, that will be fulfilled in a given business concept.
• Be simple and clear: The most successful innovation in the business world is that that answers to the following question: Why didn’t I think it myself?
• Begin on a small scale: To create a company, it is wise to depart from a very concrete innovative idea, since you cannot forget that innovation will have to be present throughout the daily management of the company.
• Reach quick leadership: When there is a new product, there must be an adequate launching so that the consumers pay enough attention to the product. However, legal measures should also be taken, for example: patents or exclusive contracts to avoid the competition imitation.

The following summary of innovation principles by Bermejo, Rubio and Vega (1996), on what should be made or not to help the success of the innovation (Chart 1).

Innovative and feasible ideas are an essential step before creating a company. It comes from personal knowledge or the finding of a product or service. It is also possible to find new ideas just by looking around us and detecting the lacks of the market and by analysing the limitations of quality, rapidity, price, accessibility and efficiency of products or existing services.

The idea is the starting point but one must work to turn it into a project; to do so, we must:

• Compare the idea with other similar experiences and with public and private entities that work on those topics.
• Classify the gathered information linked with two problems: What do I want to produce? Who will be the buyers?
• Establish the production and sale strategy, the work to be done, the necessary staff and the financial resources.

3.2. - SOURCES OF IDEAS

Innovation only subsists on a conception process and, therefore, its supports are the ideas added in an adequate manner and at the right time to maintain the life of the company. In fact, there are many sources for good business opportunities ideas and they are usually very close to us.

The authors have established different classification criteria for the different sources of innovative ideas. Thus, we have the opportunity criterion of Kuriloff and Hemphill (1984); the own experience of Drucker (1986); the conception process of Mundet (1991); the economic, social or cultural changes by Ludevid and Ollé (1993) and entrepreneurial changes by Bermejo, Rubio and Vega (1996).

a) Opportunity Criterion: Kuriloff et Hemphill (1984) assert that opportunities are often close to the entrepreneur and indicate that the principal sources of the conception process are those based on opportunity (Chart 2).

In the same line, Stevenson and Jarillo (1990) and Mitton (1997) define the entrepreneurial relationship as the process in which the individuals follow opportunities without taking into account the resources they currently control.

Krueger (1998) concludes that the finding of an opportunity and the desire of independence are two things that forecast an entrepreneur is going to start a venture.

b) Criterion of the own experience: Drucker (1986) proposes other classification criterion; he insists on the importance of taking the own experience of the company or the sector into account when thinking about sources of new ideas.

The innovation or the detection of new business opportunities is more an economic and social term than a technical one. That is why it is important to begin with the analysis of the changes that are taking place in supply and demand, in the field that the entrepreneur best know, as a result of his previous entrepreneurial or economic experience.

Drucker (1986) indicates seven areas of change (internal - external) to point out the sources of ideas and adds an atypical one. (Chart 3).

The first four are internal, that is to say, they refer to the company and are visible. Specially, for the person who is within this industrial or specific services sector. The first two areas focus on opportunity and correspond to what is unexpected and what is incongruent; the third corresponds to the need of a process and the fourth depends on the analysis of the changes in the industrial sectors structure.

The remaining three are sources of external ideas that are located outside the company and are therefore within the reach of any observer. These changes focus on the modification areas of life styles; the marketing mistakes that must change the perception, modality and meaning of their messages and finally, the discontinuity, that is to say, express new scientific or unscientific knowledge.

Finally, the area of the brilliant idea tends be the less fruitful opportunity.

The degree of predictability of success decreases from the first to the seventh source.

The Investigation Institute for a Creative Co-evaluation (1998) of Mexico has corroborated Drucker’s study.

This institute indicates that the innovations in this area should fulfil the following basic criteria:

• The process must be self-contained
• It must have a weak or lacking stage
• The objective must be defined clearly
• The specifications of the solution must be defined
• People must be aware of the fact that "there should be a better way to …

Apart from these aspects, there are four indicators of the industry changes that work as warning signs, with regard to imminent changes.

These indicators are:

• Rapid growth of industry, with a higher growth rate than the rest of the economy.
• When an industry has doubled the volume, it is probable that it is beginning to perceive and attend its market in an inappropriate way.
• Convergence of technologies that until then were considered as separate ones; for example, computation and communications have originated the private digital switchboards.
• Rapid change in the way industry does business.

c) Criterion according to the causes: Mundet (1991) analyses the sources of innovation through the conception process, taking into account the studies of Kuriloff and Hemphill, though he adds some new sources. (Chart 4).

d) Criterion of social or cultural changes: Ludevid and Ollé (1993) say that opportunities can emerge from the systematic observation of economic, social or cultural changes. (Chart 5)

If we observe the factors of social change in the last three decades in Spain, we would have quite quickly a list of possible business opportunities, taking into account the new needs such changes generate.

e) Criterion of entrepreneurial changes: Bermejo, Rubio and Vega (1996) propose to search the opportunities for entrepreneurial changes. (Chart 6)

They indicate entrepreneurial changes in:

• New uses: New forms of development of conventional ventures or the diversifications emerged after existing activities are included in this paragraph. For example, we could try to take advantage of the natural resources of some geographical region to encourage alternative uses of materials. Actually, there are some new companies that manufacture cork products and make such atypical goods as agendas; the business outplacement, related to the consulting firms of human resources, consists of the outplacement of the staff no longer needed by the companies.
• New entrepreneurial strategies: Generally, a business aim is to increase sales, to reduce costs, to produce cheaper and cheaper, to have a dedicated staff, to increase the company value, etc. It is possible to get that by using new management techniques.

The ideas where you can find opportunities can proceed from various sources, but specially:

• The media: press, radio, television, the Internet, etc. They help the entrepreneur know the social, technological trends or the ones that have an effect on the society.
• The economy newspapers give information about the changes that are taking place in economy.
• The commercial fairs expose the events that have an effect on a particular industry.
• The government publications include a wide range of topics: patents, foreign markets, …

If we follow a system when we think, we may get better results and more entrepreneurial ideas. That for, we must focus on the resources we have and on the needs and interests of the would-be clients. Choose three of the following elements and seek possible sources of innovation that will allow us to think about a business.

1. Demography and population data: for example, there are more old people.
2. We can also note the occupation rates, and notice the working population works less and less and has less purchasing power: they have more time for leisure but they can spend less money for it. Therefore, there should be a change in the forms and leisure activities.
3. Change the way of working and work culture: part-time contracts, at home (in USA more than 20 million people do not work for a company, though it is not always a self-decision), desolation of the countryside and untapped rural resources.
4. Social, cultural and economic changes: Better quality and bigger specialization in the shops and trades are required.
5. People come back to natural products and nature: they overvalue the state and physical aspect, communications, computer networks, information retrieval are getting more and more important, etc.
6. Relationships between companies: Big companies tend to subcontract other smaller companies or divide their own companies into subsidiaries to have more flexibility and adapt the market. That is why there are business opportunities here.

Many things are now appearing: new rules as the Educational rule; the transverse matters, the obligatory schooling until the age of 16, procedures of the EU on Security and Hygiene at work (The Security officer in building works appears in it), the European reforestation funds, etc.

Anyway, the search for business ideas is easier if we are within the professional environments, developing a labour of learning or collaboration, in touch with companies, entities and people.

Nevertheless, the entrepreneur must not forget creativity and innovation once he or she has created the company. Today, the daily management of a business demands a predisposition to change, a permanent concern with adaptation and innovation. That is why we are going to study some aspects of creativity.

4. CREATIVITY: CONCEPT AND DEFINITION

Creativity has often been associated to geniality, considering that it is a genetic gift. Time has proved that this belief is not that certain; creativity is not only present in discoveries accomplished by famous people, but also many of our small daily acts enclose a lot of creativity.

Therefore, creativity does not only depend on inheritance, neither on education nor on ones’ environment. It is fundamentally the product of personality; basically, a person will only need to know himself or herself very well to understand that he or she can give even more.

There is no unitary definition for creativity. The word “creativity” derives from the Latin "creare" that means “create something new”, “make something that did not exist before”. Though the theoreticians do not agree on the definition, all the definitions have clearly something in common; this common denominator stresses the idea of "something new", independently from the fact that the new thing could be a poetry, a political decision, a new product, etc.

The definition given before can be sufficient. However, definitions are not valid in their totality if they are seen in practice. The previous definition is, then, insufficient since it is not compared with its results. Creativity is intimately bound to the concept of innovation.

We will try to define both concepts in a simple way.

CREATIVITY	INNOVATION
It is the mental process that helps us to generate ideas	It is the practical application of these ideas in order to reach the objectives in a more effective way.

Innovation is the essence of success. Without innovation, we would be doing the same as in the past: stagnation, deterioration and death. To be innovative we need creative ideas. Without ideas, it is impossible to innovate. In other words, success depends on the dual relationship between ideas and the transformation of the chosen ideas into practical innovations. Innovations only happen when the implemented ideas have a clear aim as, for example, the accomplishment of a task in a more productive way (better, cheaper or more satisfactory). It is clear that creativity is the raw material for innovation.

Of course, we will have many creative ideas but only a few will serve for innovation.

5. CREATIVITY AND PERSONALITY

Like we were indicating in the previous point, until a few years ago a creative person was the one who had a natural genetically inherited gift. Creativity has become more and more important and this has led to investigate more on the topic and to explain doubts about the term.

Obviously, the creativity level of each individual depends of his or her personality, but it is not something genetic but a given quality, which we can improve. However, creative people seem to share common characteristics.

Before listing them, it may be convenient to explain some of the wrong ideas that have been associated with the creativity concept.

If it were a gift, the effort to cultivate or improve it would make no sense; automatically we would not have the need to encourage it and would just have to look at Einstein, Mozart or Michelangelo.

Obviously, if we do not support creativity, it will only depend on the natural talent. But if we give training, structures and systematic techniques, we will be able to overcome the general level. Some people will always do better than others, but all of them will have acquired a certain creative capacity. Some people are naturally creative but it does not mean that they could do even better if they trained and learn creative techniques. Creativity is not an exclusive characteristic of geniuses.

5.2. - Creativity versus Intelligence

Observably, intelligence is the motor of the mind. The rapidity of mental reactions depends on its power and the person will have a quicker observation. Nevertheless, intelligence is not necessarily synonymous with "mental capacity". An intelligent person can be a bad thinker, if he or she has not learnt the necessary techniques to think well. On the other side, a person less intelligent can have acquired better mental abilities. An intelligent person who has not learnt the techniques of creative thought can result less creative than other, less intelligent, especially if the techniques with which he or she was educated act against creative behaviour.

All depends on the habits, training and expectations of each individual. Nobody needs to be exceptionally intelligent to be creative.

The history of humanity has let some beliefs about creativity and made it exclusive of several people who deserve to be included in the geniuses category, thanks to their works or their facts.

5.2. Right hemisphere versus left hemisphere.

Our brain is made of two halves called hemispheres. During a lot of time, each hemisphere was attributed determined qualities, and it seemed that they were operating in an independent way, prevailing one over the other.

The qualities or mental processes of each hemisphere are: (Chart 6)

In this way, they explained that, for example, in Picasso, the right side prevailed over the left one in his brain, and for Einstein, that was the contrary; however, Einstein was very good at painting and his friends considered him a virtuous Violinist.

Although the differentiation between both hemispheres has certain value since it indicates that thoughts are not all linear and symbolic, this question has been given too much importance and have been changed into something dangerous and potentially prejudicial for creativity.

Indeed, when we see that a person have certain abilities, we give them too much emphasis and we tend to forget others that would require greater attention and training.

Recent investigations have demonstrated that the weakest part of the brain can develop through specific trainings, but this does not mean that we abandon the strong cerebral zones, but on the contrary, it implies the parallel strengthening of all the mental development areas.

5.3. Characteristics of the creative personality

Which men should be qualified as creators?

Generally, they were called “creators” by others, only for pragmatic reasons.

In order to determine if these individuals with high creative capacity had in common some personality features, they were interviewed, observed directly and measured them with psychological tests.

In spite of the diversity of the results, researchers could establish common characteristics in these individuals. We will detail the most important ones (Chart 7)

6. THE CREATIVE PROCESS

THE COYOTE MEETS BUDDHA

Chuck Jones, the creator of the Coyote, says that in order to draw a coyote, “you have to have a coyote inside you. And you have to bring it to light. The animation means to bring a drawing to life. And how do you do that? You have to find it inside you”.

While we were producing a TV series The creative Spirit in Tokyo, Japan, a sculptor of Buddha figures told us: “When I am carving, I look for Buddha in the wood, and when I am carving, I need to bring Buddha out of the wood”. Between the Coyote and Buddha there is a hidden truth: for creativity to arise, something hidden in our interior must become alive and become real in the outside world. (Paul Kaufman).

John E. Arnold defined the creative process as "that mental process in which experiences or past knowledge are combined time and time again, frequently with some distortion, in such a way that new concepts, configurations and ideas are created and these solve better the needs of humanity"

If we read slowly this definition, we can deduce two clear elements of the creative thought:

• Originality, because it leads to "something new" "different"...
• Usefulness because it must satisfy a need or solve a human problem.

Let us observe briefly both elements in order to determine their dependence relationships. When we use the term "original", we refer to something unknown and inexistent before, but also to something different to something that already existed, because of the introduction of some distinguishing element that makes it belong to the category of original things".

Then, original things admit two states: one of them, completely new, that is to say, unknown until now; we will call it “discovery” or “invention”. The second is a modification of something that already exists, that is to say, the renovation or creation of something that has already been created. Both states deserve the category of original things.

The second distinguishing element of the creative thought is more complex, because it depends on the result and the function of creativity. Let us see: May creative things not been considered creative in function of what we want from creativity?

If for example, we are in an informal friends meeting, and we intend to be creative talking about one subject, the distinguishing elements of the process will not have the same importance; here, because of its insignificance, originality will be more important than usefulness.

On the contrary, if we are in a creativity meeting of our company aimed at determining the possible viability of a product, both elements depend on the other. Usefulness may even be more important, since a product should necessarily satisfy better a need than other that already exists, and include elements that make it more original more novel, that is, different.

6.1. Phases of the creative process

Creativity is not something that comes suddenly as if it were inspiration. Until we get a creative idea, there is a creative process based on three phases. This process is unconscious and always follows the same line. We will have to pass through the three phases.

• Permeation. The human being is characterized by the quantity of information he or she is able to process. All of us, every day, hear, speak, see etc., a sequence of facts we could call our experience. We record and process part of this information and we forget definitely the other part. We will use the first part as a seed that can become creative.
• Incubation. In this second phase, we go on processing information thanks to the brain, and purifying it even more.
• Enlightenment. It is the phase where the previous processes begin to work. We usually called it "inspiration", it is the demonstration of the idea, of the new approach we were drawing. But this wrongly designated "inspiration" does not exist on its own; it is the result of the previous process.

6.2. Sources of creativity

Creativity does not exist on its own; it should be included within a source of inspiration or origin. Thus, we can determine that there are attitudes or concrete behaviours that permit to generate more creativity. Some of these attitudes are involuntary and other, on the contrary, are voluntary and require effort and work. We will make a list of the more traditional sources of creativity.

• Innocence: Creativity, product of innocence, is the classic creativity of children. Innocence inhibits the weight of restrictions and allows a freer and new approach of any issue.
• Experience: The creativity that comes from experience is the contrary of innocent creativity. The latter includes risks assumption because of its novelty; the creativity of experience has quite no risk since it takes its basis on things already known and on the restrictions given by the own experience.
• Motivation: This is the fundamental source of creativity of those people really called "creative" people. What does it mean? You must be curious enough to look for explanations; you must try everything and always study to seek for new ideas. There is an investment of time and effort and an attempt to be creative. Finally, this investment generates new and creative ideas.
• Valuation and judgement capacity: It refers to those people that are able to recognize the potential of an idea very early, who know how to convert it into reality. This valuation capacity is a creative act. If the idea is new, one must visualize its viability.
• Casual and eventful: We refer here to those facts or creative events that occurred by chance, accident or mistake. The history of humanity is full of examples: Fleming discovered the penicillin by chance, Christopher Columbus discovered America because of a measurement mistake, etc.

In many occasions, the mistakes, the anomalies, what does not work have generated new ideas, new points of view. This happens because such facts remove us from the limits of reasonable things and, generally, our daily lives develop in the set of reasonable norms. These limits are the result of the experience of the past and the people that are unable to create new ideas do not want it to change.

The more used creative techniques invite us to think and propose totally wild and disparate ideas, not for the idea in itself but because it opens new roads and approaches.

“A person who has never made a mistake is a person who has not tried anything new”. Albert Einstein

6.3. CREATIVE BLOCK

The creative capacity of each individual is different, as it can be for his or her stature, proportions or colour. We only use l0% of our creative capacity, and the remaining 90% stay in a lethargic state. The lost of this creative potential is due to two different causes.

1º. To an adaptation process of the individual to the society: From the moment a subject is born, some restrictions are imposed to him, generally social restrictions; then, he looses naturalness, spontaneity and freshness and becomes "predictable". In this paragraph, we can indicate some factors: the habits and social restrictions (the conformist postures, faith in reason and logic, preconception and distrust of new things, education, etc.).

2º. To restrictions: personal restrictions. Here, we find emotional factors: fear of being ridiculous, fear to make a mistake, pathological need of feeling safe, etc.).

The creator, the creative man, must go in a different way, dive in the ambiguity of what is new without loosing his faith. But he never looses the contact with reality and does not forget that something creative must be “marketable".

7. METHODOLOGY

This chapter must be put in practice with group dynamics and abilities practices with a double objective: to expose actively the contents and to show experiences to the pupils to help them to be creative. After each dynamics, the teacher will analyse with the participants the conceptual and theoretical framework that sustains the dynamics, the conclusions and its application in the creation and management of a company. Here are the most interesting dynamics and practices:

• Preparation to generate ideas: Before generating business ideas, it is necessary to take a positive attitude toward creativity and to generate a favourable atmosphere.

Write below some recommendations to be more creative:

Entrepreneurial ideas generation: The teacher describes different situations in which a statistical data, a socio-cultural change, a normative change, a need, etc stands out, and the pupils have to propose an entrepreneurial idea for each situation.

	1.- In five minutes, make a list of how you will get money the next week.
3.- In an advertisement campaign, it is the same person (he decides, pays and gets benefit)	2.- Propose your ideas of point 1 to a partner and complete the following aspects: Who decides the purchase or contracting of the product or service? Who will pay for it? Who gets the benefit?

In reality, all the problems are opportunities. A person with a problem is a person that needs something. When a group of people needs something, this can be the first step for an entrepreneurial opportunity.

Think about three problems that exist in your environment. Then, solve them by using the brainstorming technique.

Use the following table to change, adapt or replace solutions of the previous exercise if they actually exist.

Analysis of the entrepreneurial idea: Each pupil chooses an entrepreneurial idea (The teacher can also give articles about different entrepreneurial initiatives to the pupils) and then answer the following questions: Why is it innovative?, What makes it different from competition? In which degree is it feasible?

Document analysis in groups and presentation to the whole class with different creative techniques: The teacher distributes part of the support material (this is the content of the module between the different groups); they have to read it and present it to the whole class in an original way (a dramatization, interview to an expert, a TV program...).

Test: I am creative and innovative. With a questionnaire, we analyse the degree of creativity and innovation of each pupil. Then, participants must think about their answer and about the aspects they must improve to be more innovative. (We have designed an innovation scale - adaptation from: Trejo López, Enrique; Palaci Descals, Francisco; Moriano Leon, Juan Antonio; Sanchez Almagro, Marisa "The Enterprising Youth of Castille and Leon", Junta de Castille and Leon, 2002. You can also use the " Mental Opening" dimension of the BFQ, the “Test of cognitive flexibility” from Seisdedos or another similar scale).

Study of examples of entrepreneurs that introduced an innovative idea that was a success for their business (You can use articles of experiences; the pupils will have to say why this company is innovating; the teacher can put examples and then ask the participants if they can quote other examples)

Wit or riddle games: their solution must be a creative option and then, you ask the pupils how they got to that solution, overcoming the standardized thought. (You can use handbook games, for example: "Wit Games" by Martín Cebrián, Modesto, Diputación of Valladolid).

Solution of problems and conflicts in a creative way. Propose problems and real situations which an entrepreneur may find and analyse different solutions. (You can use books of problems or conflicts solution.

Make a list of benefits. In groups, analyse the reasons why some people would use your service or buy a product.

Indicate how you would use a stone. Try to solve the problem on your own for the moment. After 5 minutes, how many uses did you find?

Compare your solutions with those of the group. How many have you found?

Indicate 5 things that you can do well or that you would learn quickly (linked to leisure, spare time, pleasures, knowledge abilities); then, indicate 3 ways of getting money, by manufacturing, marketing or lending a service.

Chooses one of the previous options and answer the following questions. Work in groups for this activity.

8. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bermejo, M.; Rubio, I. y Vega, I. (1996). La creación de la empresa propia. Madrid. McGraw-Hill e Instituto de Empresa, 11-65.

Drucker, P.F. (1986). La gerencia en tiempos difíciles. Barcelona. Orbis.

Gibb, S. (1987). "Enterprise Culture: Its Meaning and Implications for Education and Training" in Journal of European Training. MCB. Publications, Spring.

Kuriloff, A. H.; Hemphill, J. M. (1984). Cómo hacer rentable un negocio desde el principio. Factores básicos de eficacia. Bilbao. Ediciones Deusto.

Ludevid, M. y Olle, M. (1993). Cómo crear su propia empresa. Factores clave de gestión. Barcelona. Marcombo, Boixareu Editores. 2ª ed.

Mundet, J. (1991). Creación de empresas. Factores de éxito. Barcelona P.P.U.; S.A. 23-29.

Schumpeter, J.A. (1934 [1978]). Teoría del Desenvolvimiento económico. México. Fondo Cultural de Economía. 9-10: 135-139. "The theory of economics development: and inquiry into profits, Capital, Interest and business cycle.” En M.C. Entrepreneurship. 1990. Cambridge. Harvard University Press.